1、 原文出处：Marketing Management Marketing Channels and Value Networks Most producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users; between them stands aset of intermediaries performing a variety of functions. These intermediaries constitute a marketing channel (also called a trade channel or distr
2、ibution channel). Formally, marketing channels are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. They are the set of pathways a product or service follows after production, culminating in purchase and use by the final en
3、d user. Some intermediaries-such as wholesalers and retailers-buy, take title to, and resell the merchandise; they are called merchants. Others-brokers, manufacturers representatives, sales agents-search for customers and may negotiate on the producers behalf but do not take title to the goods; they
4、 are called agents. Still others-transportation companies, independent warehouses, banks, advertising agencies-assist in the distribution process but neither take title to goods nor negotiate purchases or sales; they are called facilitators.The Importance of Channels A marketing channel system is th
5、e particular set of marketing channels a firm employs, and decisions about it are among the most critical ones management faces. In the United States, channel members collectively have earned margins that account for 30% to 50% of the ultimate selling price. In contrast, advertising typically has ac
6、counted for less than 5% to 7% of the final price.Marketing channels also represent a substantial opportunity cost. One ofthe chief roles of marketing channels is to convert potential buyers into profitable customers. Marketing channels must not just serve markets, they must also make markets. The c
7、hannels chosen affect all other marketing decisions. The companys pricing depends on whether it uses mass merchandisers or high-quality boutiques. The firms sale force and advertising decisions depend on how much training and motivation dealers need. In addition, channel decisions include relatively
8、 long-term commitments with other finns as well as a set of policies and procedures. When an automaker signs up independent deal ers to sell its automobiles, the automaker cannot buy them out the next day and replace them with company-owned outlets. But at the same time, channel choices themselves d
9、epend on the companys marketing strategy with respect to segmentation, targeting, and positioning. Holistic marketers ensure that marketing decisions in all these different areas are made to collectively maximize value. In managing its intermediaries, the firm must decide how much effort to devote t
10、o push versus pull marketing. A push strategy uses the manufacturers sales force, trade promotion money, or other means to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the product to end users. Push strategy is appropriate where there is low brand loyalty in a category, brand choice is made in
11、the store, the product is an impulse item, and product benefits are well understood. In a pull strategy the manufacturer uses advertising, promotion, and other forms of communication to persuade consumers to demand the product from intermediaries, thus inducing the intermediaries to order it. Pull s
12、trategy is appropriate when there is high brand loyalty and high involvement in the category, when consumers are able to per ceive differences between brands, and when they choose the brand before they go to the store. For years, drug companies aimed ads solely at doctors and hospitals, but in 1997
13、the FDA issued guidelines for TV ads that opened the way for pharmaceuticals to reach consumers directly. This is particularly evident in the burgeoning business of prescription sleep aids.SEPRACOR INC. The increased use of prescription sleep aids is due not so much to an increase in the number of i
14、nsomniacs, as to the billions of dollars the drug companies re spending on print and TV advertising. Consider Sepracors ads for Lunesta, featuring a pale green Luna moth flitting around the head of a peaceful sleeper. Sepracor spent $2.98 million in consumer advertising in 2006, and its stock and sa
15、les have jumped due to its successful campaign. The drug industry as a whole spent more than $4 billion on consumer ads in 2005, more than a fivefold increase in 10 years. Its aggressive pUll marketing strategy has, however, prompted intense debate and scrutiny from Congress. After all, while aggres
16、sive advertising of Mercks Vioxx generated huge profits, it exposed housands of U.S. adults to heart attack risks. Critics of the new drug ads say the drugs they tout treat symptoms rather than spurring consumers to discoverthe reason they cant sleep (which can range from simple stress to serious il
17、lness). Proponents of such ads say that in an era of managed care and shortened doctor visits, ads educate patients and spark important conversations with doctors. Although the pharmaceutical industry is unlikely to pUll back, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. has won some kudos for voluntarily banning ads d
18、uring the first year new drugs are on the markets. Top marketing companies such as Coca-Cola, Intel, and Nike skillfully employ both push and pull strategies. Marketing activities directed towards the channel as part of a push strategy are more effective when accompanied by a well-designed and well-
19、executed pull strategy that activates consumer demand. On the other hand, without at least some consumer interest, it can be very difficult to gain much channel acceptance and support.Channel Development A new firm typically starts as a local operation seIling in a fairly circumscribed market, using
20、 existing intermediaries. The number of such intermediaries is apt to be limited: a few manufacturers sales agents, a few wholesalers, several established retailers, a few trucking companies, and a few warehouses. Deciding on the best channels might not be a problem; the problem is often to convince
21、 the available intermediaries to handle the firms line. If the firm is successful, it might branch into new markets and use different channels in different markets. In smaller markets, the firm might sell directly to retailers; in larger markets, it might sell through distributors. In rural areas, i
22、t might work with general-goods merchants; in urban areas, with limited-line merchants. In one part of the country, it might grant exclusive franchises; in another, it might seJJ through aJJ outlets witIing to handle the merchandise. In one country, it might use international sales agents; in anothe
23、r, it might partner with a local firm. International markets pose distinct challenges. Customers shopping habits can vary by countries, and many retailers such as Germanys Aldi, the United Kingdoms Tesco, and Spains Zara have redefined themselves to a certain degree when entering a new market to bet
24、ter tailor their image to local needs and wants. Retailers that have largely stuck to the same selling formula regardless of geography, such as Eddie Bauer, Marks & Spencer, and Wal-Mart,marketing strategy for Its entrance into 1M US. market to slock different national manufacturer have sometimes en
25、countered trouble in entering new markets. In short, the channel system evolves as a function of local opportunities and conditions, emerging threats and opportunities, company resources and capabilities, and other factors. Consider some of the challenges Dell has encountered in recent years.DELL De
26、ll revolutionized the personal computer category by selling products directly to customers via the telephone and later the Internet, rather than through retailers or resellers. Customers could custom design the exact PC they wanted, and rigorous cost cutting allowed for low everyday prices. Sound li
27、ke a winning formula? It was for almost two decades. But 2006 saw the company encounter a number of problems that led to a steep stock price decline. First, reinvigorated competitors such as HP narrowed the gap in productivity and price. Always focused more on the business market, Dell struggled to
28、sell effectively to the consumer market. Ashift in consumer preferences to bUy in retail stores as opposed to buying direct didnt help, but self-inflicted damage from an ultraefficient supply chain model that squeezed costs-and quality-out of customer service was perhaps the most painfuL Managers ev
29、aluated calf center employees primarily on how fong they stayed on each calf-a recipe for disaster as scores of customers felt their problems were ignored or not properly handled. Alack of R&D spending that hindered new-product development and led to a lack of differentiation didnt help either. Clea
30、rly, Dell was entering a new chapter in its history that would require a fundamental rethinking of its channel strategy and its marketing approach as a whole.Hybrid Channels Todays successful companies are also multiplying the number of go-to-market or hybrid channels in anyone market area. In contr
31、ast to Dell, HP has used its sales force to sell to large accounts, outbound telemarketing to sell to medium-sized accounts, direct mail with an inbound number to sell to small accounts, retailers to sell to still smaller accounts, and the Internet to sell specialty items. Staples markets through it
32、s traditional retail channel, adirect-response Internet site, virtual malls, and thousands of links on affiliated sites. Companies that manage hybrid channels must make sure these channels work well together and match each target customers preferred ways of doing business. Customers expect channel i
33、ntegration, characterized by features such as:the ability to order a product online and pick it up at a convenient retail location；the ability to return an online-ordered product to a nearby store of the retailer；the right to receive discounts and promotional offers based on total online and off-lin
34、e purchases. Circuit City estimated in-store pick-ups accounted for more than half its online sales in 2006. Heres a specific example of a company that has carefully managed its multiple channels.REI（Recreation Equipment Inc.）Whats more frustrating: buying hiking boots that cripple your feet, or try
35、ing on the perfect pair only to find the store is out of stock in the size or style you want? At Recreational Equipment Inc. (REI), the largest consumer cooperative in the United States with 2.5 million active members, outdoor enthusiasts can easily avoid both problems. In 90 REI stores across the c
36、ountry, customers are lighting up gas stoves, pitching tents, and snuggling deep into sleeping bags. REI stores are designed to give an experience, not just sell goods. If an item is out of stock, all customers need do is tap into the stores Internet kiosk to order it from REIs Web site. Less Intern
37、et-savvy customers can even get clerks to place the order for them at the checkout counters. REI has been lauded by industry analysts for the seamless integration of its retail store, Web site, Internet kiosks, mail order catalogs, value-priced outlets, and toll-free order number. And REI not only g
38、enerates store-to-Internet traffic, it also sends Internet shoppers into its stores. If a customer browses REIs site and stops to read an REI Learn and Share article on backpacking, the site might highlight an in-store promotion on hiking boots. Like many retailers, REI has found that dual-channel s
39、hoppers spend significantly more than single-channel shop pers, and that tri-channel shoppers spend even more.Understanding Customer Needs Consumers may choose the channels they prefer based on a number of factors: the price, product assortment, and convenience of a channel option, as well as their
40、own particular ,hopping goals (economic, social, or experiential).As with products, segmentation exists, and marketers employing different types of channels must be aware that different con;umers have different needs during the purchase process. Researchers Nunes and Cespedes argue that, in many mar
41、kets, buyers fall into one offour categories. 1.Habitual shoppers purchase from the same places in the same manner over time. 2.High-value deal seekers know their needs and channel surf a great deal before buying at the lowest possible price. 3.Variety-loving shoppers gather information in many chan
42、nels, take advantage of hightouch services, and then buy in their favorite channel, regardless of price. 4.High-involvement shoppers gather information in all channels, make their purchase in a low-cost channel, but take advantage ofcustomer support from a high-touch channel. One study of 40 grocery
43、 and clothing retailers in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom found that retailers in those countries served three types of shoppers: (1) Service/quality customers who cared most about the variety and performance of products in stores as well as the service provided; (2) Price/value customers w
44、ho were most concerned about spending their money wisely; and (3) Affinity customers who primarily sought stores that suited people like themselves or the members ofgroups they aspired to join. As Figure 15.1 shows, customer profiles for these types of retailers differed across the three markets: In
45、 France, shoppers placed more importance on service and quality, in the United Kingdom, affinity, and in Germany, price and value.Even the same consumer, though, may choose to use different channels for different functions in making a purchase. For instance, someone may choose to browse through a ca
46、talog before visiting a store or take a test-drive at a dealer before ordering a car online. Consumers may also seek different types of channels depending on the particular types of goods involved. Some consumers are willing to trade up to retailers offering higher-end goods such as TAG Heuer watche
47、s or Callaway golf clubs; these same consumers are also willing to trade down to discount retailers to buy private-label paper towels, detergent, or vitamins.Value NetworksA supply chain view of a firm sees markets as destination points and amounts to a linear view of the flow. The company should fi
48、rst think of the target market, however, and then design the supply chain backward from that point. This view has been called demand chain planning. Northwesterns Don Schultz says: A demand chain management approach doesnt just push things through the system. It emphasizes what solutions consumers a
49、re looking for, not what products we are trying to sell them. Schultz has suggested that the traditional marketing four Ps be replaced by a new acronym, SIVA, which stands for solutions, information, value, and access。An even broader view sees a company at the center of a value network-a system of partnerships and alliances that a firm creates to source, augment, and deliver its offerings. A v
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