1、山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文外文文献：Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIMRizal SebastianTNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The NetherlandsAbstractPurpose This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) base
2、d on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakehol
3、ders, and long-term development processes.Design/methodology/approach Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects,
4、 and contractors through BIM application are investigated.Findings One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordin
5、ation (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been
6、embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.Originality/value This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks
7、 and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects.Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type General review1. Introduction
8、Hospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount o
9、f data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions,
10、 architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries
11、 (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a buildi
12、ng with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare buildin
13、g projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-users dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases
14、of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design in
15、formation from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communicat
16、ion tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration betw
17、een different building actors or disciplines. Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an opti
18、mal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing
19、 roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings
20、from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigate
21、d. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge d
22、omains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building pe
23、rmit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estat
24、e has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsi
25、bilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The governments support for the costs of healthcare fa
26、cilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement
27、 and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and m
28、aintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurem
29、ent method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a co
30、ntractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and m
31、oreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use
32、 phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the cli
33、ent and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred
34、since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, b
35、ut also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and cont
36、ractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the clients capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).A new challenge emerges in case
37、of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient cons
38、truction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the clients side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architects responsibility is translating clients requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specificati
39、on, and evaluating the contractors proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings con
40、sequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based o
41、n the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at
42、the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are pla
43、ced with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a me
44、asurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum clients requirements, they will recei
45、ve a bonus in accordance to the clients extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement
46、 method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes consideration
47、s and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the
48、costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accom
49、modate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on fi
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