1、外文文献：THE LIFE CYCLE OF BUILDINGABSTRACTSustainable Building is a global issue. The life cycle of building influences the life cycles of the whole planet dramatically. Some of the methods concerning Environmentally-Sound and Healthy Building, developed and used in The Netherlands will be presented an
2、d discussed in the perspective of world wide effects. Awareness about and development of those methods and approaches are actually yet not at their end. The scientific and technical complexity of the theme and the fact that the objectives are items of commercial and political interests make Sustaina
3、ble Building a delicate problem. However, after having seen how complicated it is to contribute to a Sustainable Development substantially, we will conclude with some Rules of Thumb and Innovative proposals, in order to stimulate more significant contributions in the future. INTRODUCTIONKnowledge on
4、 Sustainable Building was an item of highest importance already in the begin of human culture and civilisation. Looking back, in history, we find that Sustainable Building was a question of survival. Protection against weather circumstances, dangerous animals and hostile fellow men belong(ed) to the
5、 main functions of a building. In order to fulfil these demands it was necessary to find an equilibrium between the environmentally or ecologically based possibilities of resources and their limits and the needs and wishes for a durable home. Beside this it was determining for a built result, which
6、and how much capacities for the realisation were available. Energy for building purposes was mainly given by human power, and for a part by the use of animals and more indirectly sometimes by fire or wind. But fire was dependent from fuel. Similarly there was only building material at hand, which co
7、uld be found near to the site, because it was generally too costly, nearly impossible, to transport main materials from a source far away. When humankind started to exploit or produce (hard) energy on a large scale - at least a part, in the so called West - by steam, electricity from fuels like coal
8、, mineral oil, gas, hydropower and finally nuclear power, the scene of building changed dramatically, certainly in the rich countries, which used and still use to exploit others. In spite of pollution, deterioration and exploitation - these phenomena even mostly fully ignored - the socalled industri
9、al revolution started. Independent from a vital need, mass production firstly of all kinds of goods and later of more and more building products started. With the economical interest and power it was possible to create markets and to sell the mass products, even to far away located consumers, while
10、the relative easy new transportation lines of train and ship and later of truck and airplane, helped and help still to bring or catch raw materials from far away. Regional building disappeared in big parts of the world and with an International Architecture it was even postulated, that everything co
11、uld be the same everywhere. In the last decades we slowly recognized the terrible effects of this way to build in our environment as well as on ourselves. The mondial disaster might be, for approximately a third, the effect of the building activities, while the Sick Building Syndrome is fully create
12、d by the recent and nowadays way to build and to dwell. At the same time we should be aware that the rich appearing, technological advanced countries, which are approximately 20% of the whole humankind, can effort this style only by exploiting the + 80% of humankind, which are called the Poor, under
13、 whom a population of about 20% hardly can survive. It seems extraordinary difficult to increase the awareness of the first World concerning these relations within our mondial society. But even more difficult it is to transform our behaviour towards more balanced circumstances in the world. This con
14、tribution aims to help, modestly, to support a strategy together with the necessary know how towards Sustainable Building as an essential part of Sustainable Development. The entire building process from cradle to grave or even from cradle to cradle in its relation to the environment in terms of ene
15、rgy use and emission between digging (in put) out of the environment and bringing back (out put) into the environment. On the way of this life cycle we face exploitation, pollution and deterioration of the environment. Partial reuse is always good, but it is only a very low compensation for the dama
16、ges, which the whole process causes.LIFE CYCLE Looking more carefully (than usual) to the Life Cycle of materials and products (and similarly also to the flow of energy), applied for all kinds of purposes, including building, it is useful to distinguish in the relationship of the changes a material
17、(or an energy) undergoes with space and time. Doing so, we systematically can focus on the various impacts which the chain of causes and effects of the life cycle of a material has, in different scales and on short, middle, and long term. Before and after the final application and destination of a m
18、aterial, as a component in a building, while it is used - the actual goal of a building material - we can distinguish a number of characteristic activities. There are roughly the following activities: Before the phase of using a material it firstly has to be digged or harvested out of the environmen
19、t. Secondly the building material has to be made out or produced from the raw material. Thirdly and mostly there is a certain assemblage needed in order to get a useful building component. In between these main activities, transport and storage is needed very often. All of these acts need energy and
20、 there is hardly one of them which does not create emissions. To make a building useful, it needs the finishing touch together with the integration of all equipment and furniture, which will go on during the use of the building together with cleaning, care taking and exploiting the building. Heating
21、 and/or cooling and lighting are conditional in this period as well. Again, all of these handlings need energy and there is hardly one of them, which does not pollute the environment. After and partially already during the phase of use, it will appear, that changes, or, at least strong, maintenance
22、is needed. Partial demolition will be one of the consequences, than partial or full renewal or refurbishment can take place. Although there is a resource - saving possibility of reuse of various gradations with more or less manipulations, needed for a final proper reuse - again we can sing the refra
23、in of the need of energy and emission. Finally, everything, including the energy flow, ends up in the environment. But on the way, unfortunately, the handling mostly was executed without consideration for the availability of resources on long term, in other words exploitation, without consideration
24、for pollution either of the environment and/or concerned and committed persons and people. Already nowadays we got the proof, that many of the negative effects will last for a long and very long time. We recognize the whole life cycle as an extraordinary plot on the environment, and, paradoxical eno
25、ugh, very often also as a plot against our own health and safety, certainly on a long term. If we would like to reach a Sustainable Development we have to reduce the consumption generally, we have to reduce the consumption of energy, directly and indirectly used, and we have to minimize or even to e
26、xclude the pollution. Concerning deterioration of the landscape and exploitation of resources we earnestly have to search for renewable sources, whichs applications lead only to a short lasting deterioration. EFFECTS The effects of building activities are manifold. In the former chapter we spent att
27、ention to the life cycle of a (building) material, mainly in terms of phases or periods, shortly in terms of time. Concerning space it is possible to distinguish a number of dimensions or scales, in order to be able to specify effects in this field(s). There is a practical order with the dimension o
28、f: -Local -Regional - Fluvial - Continental - Mondial, and even- Cosmic - with reference to the fact, that the production and traffic processes, shipping and space exploration. Thus six dimensions. The areas which (can) undergo an impact and influence can be distinguished into: -Earth (the ground, i
29、ncluding the Mineral Kingdom) - Water (all kinds of rivers, lakes, seas, .) - Air (the atmosphere) - Energy (mainly the energy sources), furthermore the Plants Kingdom - the Animal Kingdom - Humans (to be understood also as a part of nature) with their (valuable) Cultural Artefacts and possibly misc
30、ellaneous, Nine areas in total. These areas, just explained, can be found on local, regional, fluvial, continental and mondial scale. This means, that an impact or influence, caused by a production process or the use of building can affect or effect these areas locally, fluvially, continentally, mon
31、dially or even cosmically. Thus six dimension. Beside this, it is necessary to realise, that the effects can come from the various activities, connected to the whole life cycle of a building material or product and the concerned processes. We distinguished nine of those activities. Three before, thr
32、ee during and three after the use of a building, nine together. The possible effects are innumerable. Sick Building Syndrome on the one hand, pollution, deterioration and exploitation on the other hand, are only rather summarizing effects. The reports on base of measurements and enquiries concerning
33、 building related illnesses, human- and ecotoxicological problems, amongst others in the food chains of animals and men, changes of landscapes and ending resources, beside the elianated and decreasing cultural values, goes already in the tens, hundreds, thousands, perhaps tenthousands . Worldwide. I
34、f we would like to measure, to rank, to weight in order to judge the impact or influence of a building material in its life cycle in terms of concerned quantities - with some completeness - we have to deal with more than thousand data - for each. In addition to this it has to be considered, that the
35、 data will change dependent from a changed choice of the used source of more or less renewable energy or farer or nearer places of to be found raw materials, or harder or softer production processes, etc. etc. It seems it will be an unsolvable task to get a correct result of the environmental and he
36、alth impact assessment this means to calculate it, as it should. However it also seems that all attempts have to be made to convince us how to make our future choices.DUTCH CONTRIBUTIONSHere it will be not possible to give an unbroken historical report on all attempts towards Sustainable Development
37、 and Sustainable Building made in the Netherlands since the energy crisis in the begin of the seventies. However two lines will be sketched - a governmental and a non-governmental one, which even started before the energy crisis, around the time of the first signs given by the Club of Rome. Both of
38、these lines developed consciousness as well as later regulations on Sustainable Building. And, of course, the practical realisations always take longer and they are much weaker than the formulation and postulation of aims. The energy crisis led to a socalled Brede Maatschappelijke Discussie - BMD, a
39、 Broad Social Debate in order to choose or approach new scenarios for gaining and using energy. At the end of the seventies there appeared a governmental report Zorgen voor Morgen (Care for Tomorrow) and after this the first NMP - National Environmental Policy Plan, A Clean Environment - Choose it o
40、r Loose it. The Building Sector was addressed there with issues as A NMP+, and, after four years at times, a NMP1, a NMP2 and a NMP3 followed. Nowadays the NMP4 is in preparation. Side by side there came a semi-governmental institution into existence: NOVEM, which unified quite a lot of former parti
41、cular and private initiatives in the field of mainly (alternative) energy use like e.g. Energie Anders (A different Energy). Together with SEV, the Group dealing with Experiments in Housing and SBR, Foundation Building Research started with the governmental supported institute Duurzaam Bouwen - DuBo
42、 Sustainable Building. Along this development, important to mention, there appeared five times (yearly) a Paasbrief - an Eastermessage of Rgd - Rijksgebouwendienst the governmental section, which takes care for all governmental buildings. Regulations like Bouwbesluit (Decision to build) and the Plan
43、 van aanpak (How to Grasp) and Nationaal Pakket (National Package) voor Woningbouw (Housing) and later Utiliteitsbouw (Utility Building) were further steps in the development. Nowadays we see a state of a relative awareness about the necessity of Sustainable Building also in its complexity, but it s
44、eems at the same time, that the relatively easy possible, small steps give already a satisfaction, with which the majority of the planners and builders remain.The number of model projects of Sustainable Building is growing, but their consequence in following the main aims of a Sustainable Developmen
45、t is far from the desirable, far from a substantial contribution to the world problems.COMPLEXITYThe Life Cycle of Building has as we already have seen a high complexity concerning its technical structure in time and space. Beside this it also has a complicated and even delicate place and meaning co
46、ncerning its social and economical importance. Being a main part of eachs countrys national economy and being in the hands of profit-orientated industries in relation with employment or unemployment of large numbers of workers in the building and construction industry it is not easy to change the co
47、ncerned habits from an environmental damaging, unhealthy way to build towards an environmentally-sound and healthy one. In the Metamodel for an Integral Bio-Logical Architecture we see the complexity visualised, and this mandala like diagram with its pictograms is made as a kind of checklist, but al
48、so as a(n) (design) aid and to support a fundamental contemplative and reflective view on architecture, building and planning and the manifold processes within and around. It might be helpful also to look to the cost consequences of the Life Cycle of Building integrally and on long term. In the Iceb
49、erg Theory it is stated, that the real costs of building are approximately ten times higher than the prices we pay usually for a building or also for the most other more or less high advanced industrial products. The reasons for these hidden costs are to find in mainly three circumstances: Firstly Sooner or later we will have to compensate and to repair the damages in the natural environment as a consequenc
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