1、本科毕业设计外文文献：Electronic CommerceElectronic commerce, or Electronic trade, or electronic business as a newly rising mode of commerce will have far-reaching influence on social economy and play an important role in social development worldwide. It represents the trend of world trade in the 21st century
2、and beyond.1. What is Electronic Commerce?Electronic commerce refers to commercial data exchange in digital form through electronic transmission means and commercial activities conducted on-line. Usually, electronic commerce can be divided into two levels: One is low-level electronic commerce that i
3、s, electronic commercial intelligence, electronic trade, and electronic contracts. Another is high-level electronic commerce which includes all commercial activities done via Internet, ranging from searching for clients, commercial negotia-tion, making orders, on-line payment, releasing electronic i
4、nvoice, to electronic dec-laration to Customs, electronic tax-payment, all conducted on Internet.Electronic commerce means electrification of all trade transactions. It is featured by these characters: fairness and freedom, high efficiency, globalization, virtualization, interactivity, autonomy, per
5、sonalized service. With electronic commerce, clients and suppliers can closely and conveniently contact with each other on a global scale, so that clients can find satisfactory suppliers from all comers of the world to meet their demands.Electronic commerce will change the environment in which enter
6、prises compete with each other and reduce costs which would otherwise be high in traditional market structure. Low costs in transactions, convenience in market entry and government encouragement to use Internet (exemption from tax) activate electronic commerce and boost it to develop rapidly right f
7、rom its beginning. As experts predicted, by 2000, electronic commerce would reach a scale of 300billion US dollars worldwide. And it has exceeded this scale.To ensure security of electronic commerce, an electronic certification center should be established. Digital ID is used to validate identity. D
8、igital 11 is trusted to a third party, namely, an authorized agency, to release, including identifying informa-tion of the holder (name, address, liaison way, ID card number), an encryptive key for common use by the both parties, period of validity, password and identification in-formation of the au
9、thorized agency, etc. With digital ID, both parties in transactions can be assured of identifying the other party and validate that the information sent out from the other party has not been subject to alteration.2. Influence That Electronic Commerce May HaveCompared with traditional commerce, elect
10、ronic commerce has superiorities as follows*Extensive coverage. A network system combining Internet, Intranet (local area network inside enterprises) and Extranet (networks outside enterprises) enables buy-ers, sellers, manufacturers and their partners to contact with each other and conven-iently tr
11、ansmit commercial intelligence and documents worldwide.*Complete functions. In electronic commerce, users of different types and on dif-ferent tiers can realize different targets in trade, for example, releasing commercial intelligence, on-line negotiation, electronic payment, establishment of virtu
12、al com-mercial market place and on-line banking, etc.*Convenience and flexibility in use. Based on Internet, electronic commerce is free from restriction by specialized protocol for data exchange. Transactions can be conducted conveniently on computer screen, by using any type of PCs, at any place a
13、round the world.*Low cost. Use of electronic commerce can cut down costs for hiring employees, maintaining warehouse and storefront, expense for international travel and postage to a great extent. The cost for using Internet is very low.Electronic commerce will have substantial influence on social e
14、conomy:*Electronic commerce will change the way people used to take in commercial ac-tivities. Through networks, people can enter virtual stores and browse around, select what they are interested in, and enjoy various on-line services. On the other hand, merchants can contact with consumers through
15、networks, decide on buying in goods (categories and quantities) and perform settlement of accounts. Government agencies can perform electronic tendering and pursue government purchase through networks.*The core of electronic commerce is people. It is a social system. On-line shop-ping changes the wa
16、y of peoples daily life and fully embodies autonomy of consum-ers in trade.*Electronic commerce changes the way enterprises produce their goods. Through networks, manufacturers know market demand directly and make arrangement of production, in accordance with consumers need.*Electronic commerce dram
17、atically raises efficiency of trade. Intermediate links can be cut down; costs for sales will be reduced to minimum. Production can be ar-ranged in small batches plus diverse varieties, and zero stock will be reality.*Electronic commerce calls for reformation of banking services. New concepts like o
18、n-line bank, on-line cash card and credit card, on-line settlement of accounts, electronic invoice, electronic cash-consumers will no longer use the real cash when shopping-will become reality.*Electronic commerce will change government behavior. Called on-line gov-ernment, an on-line administration
19、 plays the important role of a social channel, maintaining order and fairness and detecting and cracking down on-line fraud.3. The Present Situation of Electronic Commerce in Developed CountriesIn the mid-1990s, when Internet experienced explosive development and micro-computers entered homes in gre
20、at numbers, computer networks became an indispen-sable part of peoples daily life. People expect for more interests and convenience brought in by computer networks. Electronic Commerce emerged just in time. In de-veloped countries, governments timely made policies to boost electronic commerce to pra
21、ctical use and dominant position in a new round of worldwide competition.In 1998, Internet helped the United States to create productive out put of 507 bil-lion US dollars, national income of 301 billion US dollars, and 1. 2 million job op-portunities; of these, electronic commerce created an income
22、 of 100 billion US dollars. Internet has be-come the first big industry with yearly productive output increasing by 60%，and accounting for 6% of GDP. Service export from the United States has at-tained 160 billion US dollars each year, and it is predicted that it can compensate trade deficit in comm
23、odity trade. Internet played an important role in promoting ex-port from the United States: in 1999, books, automobiles and services were sold through electronic commerce to foreign countries, exceeding 102 billion US dollars.Advocated by the United States, 132 members of WTO decided to turn Interne
24、t into a free trade zone within at least one-year term. Some countries and organizations scrambled to work out development framework for electronic commerce and made laws and regulations for developing electronic commerce. In 1996, the UN Confer-ence on Trade and Development passed Model Law of Elec
25、tronic Commerce. In December, 1996, the US government issued Policy Framework for Global Electronic CommerceIn April 1997, European Union issued Proposal for Electronic Com-merce in EuropeOn July 1 1997, US President Clinton promulgated A framework for Global Electronic Commerce which has had great
26、influence on global electronic commerce. In May 1998, WTO minister conference passed A Manifesto on Global Electronic Commerce, and in September 1998, WTO general council passed Scheme for Electronic Commerce WorkIn October 1998, UN Organization of Economy and Cooperation Development (OECD) held min
27、ister conference at Ottawa, Canada on electronic commerce, which is praised as a milestone of global electronic commerce. In September 1999, Global Business Dialog on Electronic Commerce (GBDE) was held in France and is-sued Paris ProposalIn December 1999, the United States issued another Internet c
28、ommerce standard.Electronic commerce in the United States takes the rein of the trade in the world. At present, there are 60 million subscribers of Internet in the United States. More than 98% of purchasing managers seek targets on-line. As estimated, by 2002, the value involved in transactions done
29、 through electronic commerce between US enterprises will account for 6.1% of GDP. Fortune magazines statistics show the 500 top com-panies in the world all engaged in on-line business.25% of income to IBM (about 20 billion US dollars) is related with electronic commerce. Thanks to electronic com-mer
30、ce, IBM saved its expenses of 250 million US dollars during 1999. HP Company designated its electronic Commerce solution as E-world-an electronized world. This solution is oriented to medium-and small-size enterprises, and great investment was made to third parties-software companies to develop soft
31、ware suited for medium-and small-size enterprises to engage in electronic commerce. Intel places its risky invest-ment mainly on Internet and electronic commerce. In July 1998, Intel began on-line transactions Its monthly business turn electronic commerce reached one billion US dollars.As a survey m
32、ade by European Information Technology Observation shows, of the surveyed 570 companies, 47% have implemented electronic commerce of some sorts, and 4/5 of them began their electronic commerce in the latest two years. Execu-tive Committee of European Union plans at least 25% of its purchase done thr
33、ough electronic commerce by 2001. In1998, in Australia, web sites related with electronic commerce on Internet doubled in number, and 11% of Australian enterprises have their web sites. 80% of Australian companies use Internet to transmit E-mails and conduct commercial activities. In 1998, Singapore
34、 government promulgated，for electronic commerce. Singapore is the only country in Southeast Asia that formally joined the Rights and Obligation Electronic commerce In cooperation with US manufacturers and firms, Singapore established an electronic commerce entry in Asia, providing comprehensive Busi
35、ness-to-Business (B to B) service, so as to enable Asian trade companies to enter the rank of global electronic commerce.4. Development of Electronic Commerce in ChinaExploration in electronic commerce, governmental and civil began in 1993 in China. Today, electronic commerce has found its applicati
36、ons in foreign trade, Cus-toms, finance and commerce. Local frameworks have been established in Beijing and Shanghai for electronic commerce. Some electronic commerce web sites have been opened to on-line shopping and on-line settlement of accounts.The Ministry of Foreign Trade set up in February 19
37、96 China Electronic Com-merce Center responsible for research, construction, and operation of international electronic commerce project in CT he Center established China Commodity Trade Market on Internet, to put rich resources of goods in China to world market, opening new channel for our exports.
38、The subject Security Proof of Electronic Commerce as a key item in science and technology during th9th Five-year Plan period was ap-praised in early 1996 by State Department of Science and Technology and State En-cryptive Code Administration, which laid a foundation for establishing a safe and norma
39、l environment for electronic commerce in our country.In March 1999, the Ministry of Information Industry approved the electronic commercial network of pharmaceutics and health as a model project of electronic commerce for all trades. It is one of the six specialized networks in China, which pro-vide
40、 all-direction serve of market information, product transaction, warehousing and delivery, and account settlement, etc.In Shanghai, in 1999, Shanghai Administrative Center of Electronic Commerce Security Certificate was set up, which provide security platform for electronic com-merce and is responsi
41、ble for application, appraisal, making and management of digital certificate domestic and foreign clients in Shanghai, and offers services such as certi-fication of digital identity and digital signature, electronic notarization, secure E-mail and secure encryption, etc. In January 1 the first on-li
42、ne bookstore in China-Shanghai Book City On-line standard. It provides VISA cardholders and card-holders of domestic Great Wall card, Dragon card, Peony card and Pacific card with instant and authorized security service.The measure taken in Beijing to develop electronic commerce is to build a capita
43、l electronic commerce city. In November 1998, the capital electronic commerce project formally activated, and a frame-work formally showed off. The Legend Computer Company open edits electronic commerce system in June 1999, and web sites 8848, sina, 163, all activated their electronic commerce.In Ap
44、ril 2000, sponsored by the Ministry of Information Indus-try，National Economy and Trade Commission, and China Council for Promotion of International Trade, the 4th China International Electronic Commerce Conference was held. State leaders and superintendents of various ministries and commissions joi
45、ned the opening conference. Mr. Levy, secretary of Commercial Department of the US government led a delegation of famous US enterprises and media, totally more than 100 persons, to join the conference. More than 60 seminars were held during the conference, to dis-cuss extensive topics on electronic
46、commerce.Despite all these efforts, companies engaged in electronic commerce service in China suffer losses in their B-to-C business (B refers to Business, C refers to Con-sumers). Some Chinese experts attribute this to Chinese shopping habit-Chinese con-sumers treat shopping as an interesting hobby
47、; they enjoy the pleasure of spending their money through appreciating and comparing merchandise, and bargaining; but all these will vanish from on-line shopping. Other experts attribute this phenomenon to the ubiquitous incredulity in society-banks can-not interconnect their business be-cause they
48、fear their customers will be captured by their rivals; cash cards cannot be popularized because banks do not trust civilians; and civilians do not like to do on-line shopping because they do not trust on-line stores,etc. Why？Thats because many things on-line and in society are false, for ex-ample, f
49、alse number of subscribers, false statistics of access flux, shoddy goods, forged diploma, sham curriculum vitae, sham investment, sham listing, false revenue to listed enterprises, etc. Such an over-all environment will not change within a long period of time. In such environment, no commercial activity can be done. Many IT practitioners are disheartened with elec-tronic commerce in our country.5. Prospects of Electronic CommerceAlthough developing rapidly and seeming
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