1、一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.2.Langue语言: The abstract linguistic system
2、shared by all members of a speech community.3.Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1
3、.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophone
4、s of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structu
5、re of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as t
6、ense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法 句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic cate
7、gories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surfac
8、e structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having dif
9、ferent meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speak
10、ers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of co
11、mmunication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguis
12、tic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the
13、study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive
14、definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Secon
15、d, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal beca
16、use the primary medium for all languages is sound.3What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the s
17、ign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. 3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels. 4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagine
18、d, past, present or future 5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么? Phonetics descri
19、ption of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. 2. What is phone?
20、 How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones-actual realization
21、 of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbs
22、Examples: fighting: denote the action of battle building: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented from calculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or busi
23、ness activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes plays dentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1) prefix: un- meaning
24、: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or language unhappy: not happy2) prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating a
25、gainst medically induced abortion anti-art: against the traditional art3) prefix: re-meaning: once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once more reaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1) dialectal syno
26、nyms-synonyms used in different regional2) Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4) Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5) Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examp
27、les “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identic
28、al in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed: Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peace Homographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n. Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while differ
29、ent words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at lea
30、st six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary: 1. a piece of furniture2. all the people seated at a table3. the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5. orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6. part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be oper
31、ated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each ot
32、her. For example, Superordiante: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process
33、. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it
34、 is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of mean
35、ing that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to d
36、o something (3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing (5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speak
37、er to somethings being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most
38、typical of the representatives. Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class. Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the sp
39、eaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones. The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing
40、his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the fou
41、r maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose
42、 or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: (1) The maxim of quantity Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative
43、than is required. (2) The maxim of quality Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. (3) The maxim of relation Be relevant. (4) The maxim of manner Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.
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