1、英国陶瓷产业的技术创新之路摘要通常情况下，创新在行业中发挥的作用是至关重要的。以往学者专门讨论在技术上更新兴的产业（例如，汽车和药品）。但在传统和成熟的行业上，如纺织品和陶瓷产业，往往被忽视。本文在英国陶瓷产业技术创新中的作用纠正这种让失衡。回顾以往的和当前的创新，根据同行业中的案例分析，其中包括用突出创新和技术创新取得成功的例子。1.英国陶瓷行业的一个简史陶瓷，定义为无机非金属材料，陶瓷派生于的希腊扎罗斯，大致翻译为烧土。著名陶艺家乔赛亚韦奇伍德，托马斯明顿和斯波德乔赛亚在18世纪在英国斯塔福德郡成立了陶器联盟，合并成为特伦特河畔斯托克。这个地区由于其当地丰富的粘土窑煤是最适合陶瓷生产。这些
2、资源在1777年在特伦特和默西运河畔有力的助力了英国陶瓷产业的初期成长。2. 创新和新技术的作用可以说，英国陶瓷产业已亲眼目睹了两个技术创新和新技术革命。当第一个陶工在特伦特斯托克河畔开始他们的陶瓷生产，迅速地由一个工艺作坊转变为一个行业。这个传统陶瓷行业的初始生产（即，餐具，瓷砖，砖和卫生洁具行业）带来了创新的主要问题即生产的连续性，制造一个杯子，砖瓦如前所述。为了应对这种革命性的生产经营单位产生了，这个先行者就是韦奇伍德。许多行业经过了长时间的巩固，直到二十世纪中叶，陶瓷产品的制造很难再从200年来的生产发生改变。今天，新技术的重要性对英国的陶瓷生产与日俱增。与其他产品的出现（例如，玻璃和
3、塑料）和国外市场的竞争增加，需要新的技术提供更快的生产和更高的质量是非常重要的。这种创新活动关注的大多数是陶瓷产品生产更快，更便宜，更可靠和更耐用。提高机械化水平成了瓷砖、卫生洁具和餐具制品生产厂家的重要工作。陶艺工业生产商的理想是在机器的一端放入原材料，在机器的另一端成品就出来了。3. 研究和技术组织（RTO）的作用实时系统和研究协会是专门为英国和国际公司提供技术服务，是一家创新技术的生成和扩散的私营公司。一个RTO通常代表一个技术型行业并建立在提供技术服务的公司成员的基础上。其独特的地位，使他们更加了解其特定的行业或部门，这使得他们在该部门的创新提供理想的经纪人机制，要求和需求。他们与监管
4、机构，以及企业的合作，也让他们占尽地利，并提供他们的行业技术创新的驱动力。致力于陶瓷行业的陶瓷技术研究所（RTO）是成立于1948年，它为所有陶瓷企业提供广泛的服务（例如，咨询，测试和技术支持），其中包括传统陶瓷精粹文化和先进的陶瓷技术。陶瓷技术的协助和创新，是组织成员之间的主要凝聚力，可以促进企业间合作研究、开发新技术和有利于技术转让项目，提高公司的资金和管理能力。还有就是，试图改善这种商业意识，在同行业中的证据。发展各种工业认为，坦克和战略方向的团体，例如，制造改进会，研究项目的引进，类似于此，强调以进一步cognise创新过程具有一定的意愿。在一些组织中，更多的接受和好奇的业务态度也显示
5、，积极探索在非常不同行业的其他行业，以适用于制造工艺技术，生产技术和业务观点。最近，虽然轻微，用人经理和管理人员从其他的趋势，技术更先进，产业强调这个。然而，尝试提高在同行业中经营意识的证据。各种发展的工业认为，坦克和战略方向的团体，例如，制造改进会，研究项目的引进，类似于此，强调以进一步创新过程具确定的意愿。在一些组织中，更多的接受和好奇的业务态度也显示，积极探索在不同行业的其他行业，以适用于制造工艺技术，生产技术和业务的观点。近来，虽然轻微，但雇用来自其他国家的经理和管理人员的趋势，技术更先进，产业强调到。4. 组织和管理创新如过去文献显示，创新的组织和管理是整体业务成功的关键，特别是因为
6、它是可以控制的东西。这是在陶瓷行业，有效的组织，规划，调度和实施创新是非常重要的，没有什么不同。因为如果它是一个企业用自己的权利，就会以面试答辩过程来对待：你不能在最后时处理从任何与业务目标以外成立的事。这个项目的规划和随之而来的管理是很重要的，但是，非常依赖于创新的资金来源。正如上文所强调的，很多陶瓷企业不具备资源，不能投入新技术对产品进行改良和创新。因此，他们寻求外部资金和项目管理的支持。这些来源包括政府，贸易和工业部（DTI）和欧洲委员会的经费。然而，当这种资金使用是要有保障的，通常得有具体目标集和交待所需资金原因。这是因为，今天，许多政府和欧洲商业研究和技术转让和资金使用需要充分的理由
7、。因此，许多外部资助的项目的规划和管理程序被确定为资助机构和创新组织之间的合同协议。在陶瓷行业，真空干燥技术研究就是一个例子。另一个组织和管理带来的显著作用，就是陶瓷行业的创新意识;组织可以引导和刺激创新过程中的个人和群体的工作积极性。经常在一些技术性的文献中提到，在陶瓷行业对人才非常重视。人才之所以被重视，因为观察和访谈都强调，这是推动创新向前的根本。采访还强调，像一些思维比较灵活的和有丰富行业经验的特征的人才往往是最重要的。一个在陶瓷行业中经常被引用的例子是皮尔金顿。皮尔金顿想要制作平面玻璃，但不确定如何做到这一点。一天，皮尔金顿家族的成员之一在洗衣物时，发现水面上漂浮的油脂和洗涤液。在灵
8、光一现的瞬间，他向他的组织提出问题，如何有可能类似漂浮的方式来生产偶数层的玻璃。其结果是液态锡玻璃产生了。无论是事实还是虚构的，这凸显了两个项目技术至关的作用。5. 其他创新的影响创新工作的时间是从计划文件审议通过审核和落实，到技术获得了有意义的回报这一段时间。在陶瓷行业，创新的时间表是非常重要的。这项研究确定了两个影响创新的时间段：成立到实现 。创新这个工作性质的不同于生产，有时可长达数十年。比如花了大约7年时间的真空干燥技术，作为一个潜在的解决方案进入陶瓷行业，以低耗能和减短时间的要求，用于干燥的陶瓷洁具。固体氧化物燃料电池的研究已经持续了接近十年。即使很多人会说，这是一个英国制造商通常遇
9、到的问题，但不影响到陶瓷行业的发展，这是很正常的时间表，并非刻意被延长了。变现回报 - 一旦已经实现了一个创新技术，它被出售或应用于生产，就可以从它的使用效果或者收益判断出这个技术是成功或者失败。这个时间表也说明，公司对于一个可能十五年才可能有收益的投资项目存在比较大的困难。资金方面的考虑也是行业中的成功创新的关键。根据组织内部集资方式和外部来源可分为五种形式的资金来源：内部来源，（1）内部的资金;（2）建设研究设施; 外部来源，（3）与企业的合作项目来源;（4）与其他组织的合作项目来源；（5）与最终用户的合作项目来源。然而，正如上面提到，有些陶瓷行业的公司不具备的财政资源，以扩大公司的生产。
10、因此，往往寻求外部资金。外部资金来源，包括英国政府（例如，贸工部，能源技术支持单位）和欧洲委员会（例如，焦耳合作组织）的。通常这种性质的资金技术创新研究为基础和应用工作准备的。一个例子是ETSU，最能代表政府的实践方案管理的使用效率。提供资金的机构目的在行业范围内，以刺激英国能源消耗的减少，当然，他们更多是为了新技术的应用和商业产值的导向基础上的研究和项目提供资金。6. 总结和结论陶瓷行业的发展借鉴许多以前传统的技术，通过技术创新，也取得了前所没有的发展速度，使陶瓷行业在众多行业中脱颖而出。行业中的技术创新组织的作用，是保持和进一步发展中发辉至关重要的作用。同时在陶瓷行业中，通过RTO组织促进
11、了企业间的沟通，不仅使公司内的竞争力提升，而且还不断增加的外国竞争力与集体竞争力。也显示出资金来源和拥有深入的行业知识是创新的重要推动力。创新的范围也很重要，创新不只存在于一个组织，还可以转移到其它几家公司，整个工业部门，甚至在某些情况下，延伸到整个行业。英文原文：Technological innovation antecedents in the UK ceramics industryTechnological innovation antecedents in the UK ceramics industryOriginal Research ArticleInternational
12、Journal of Production Economics, Volume 65, Issue 1, 1 April 2000, Pages 85-98Matthew P Warren, Paul L Forrester, John S Hassard, John W CottonAbstractThe role that innovation plays in industry is, usually, exclusively discussed in more technically advanced industries (for example, automotives and p
13、harmaceuticals). More mature and established industries, such as textiles and ceramics, are often neglected. This article redresses this balance by considering the role of technological innovation in the UK ceramics industry. Case analysis comprising both retrospective and current innovation in the
14、industry is used to highlight the role of innovation and some of the antecedents to successful technological innovation.1. A brief history of the UK ceramics industryCeramics are defined as non-metallic inorganic materials and the word ceramics derives from the Greek Karamos, which roughly translate
15、s as fired earth. The famous potters Josiah Wedgwood, Thomas Minton and Josiah Spode founded potteries in Staffordshire, in the UK, in the 18th century in the towns that were to amalgamate and become known as Stoke-on-Trent. This region was most suitable for pottery production due to its abundance o
16、f local clay and coal for kilns. These resources aided the initial growth of the UK pottery industry along with the Trent and Mersey Canal in 1777.2. The role of innovation and new technologyIt can be argued that the UK ceramics industry has witnessed two technological innovation and new technology
17、revolutions. When the first potters started production of ceramics in Stoke-on-Trent they, effectively, turned what was a craft into an industry. This initial production of traditional ceramic goods (i.e., tableware, tile, brick and sanitaryware sectors) brought with it the main innovating problem o
18、f obtaining output continuity; manufacturing one cup, tile or brick as mentioned previously. To respond to this, revolutionary production units were established, the forerunner to this being Wedgwood. Much of the industry then witnessed an extended period of consolidation and, up until the middle of
19、 the twentieth century, the manufacturing of ceramics goods had hardly changed from the revolutionary production units of 200 years ago.Today, new technology is of increasing importance to the UK ceramic producer. With increased competition from both other materials (for example, glass and plastic)
20、and foreign markets, the need for new technology to provide faster throughput times and greater reliability is of great importance. The majority of this innovation activity is concerned with making ceramic goods quicker, cheaper, more reliable and long lasting. Increased mechanisation is also being
21、sought in the majority of the main manufacturers from tile, sanitaryware and tableware manufactures: The industrial potters ideal is a single machine into which are fed the powdered raw materials at one end and which turns out the fully finished pieces of ware, ready for despatch, at the other end.
22、3. The role of the research and technology organisation (RTO)RTOs and Research Associations are private sector companies that specialise in the provision of services to the complete spectrum of UK and international companies, generating and diffusing innovation across the technology spectrum. An RTO
23、 will usually represent an industry or technology-type and draw its member base from the companies it serves. Their unique position enables them to understand the mechanisms, requirements and needs of their particular industry or sector, which makes them the ideal broker in the provision of innovati
24、on for that sector. Their discourse with regulatory bodies, as well as the member base, also makes them ideally placed to understand technological and innovation drivers in their industry.1 The RTO for the ceramics industry is CERAM Research. Established in 1948, it offers a wide range of services (
25、for example, consultancy, testing and technical support) for all ceramic sectors; which includes traditional ceramics and structural (bricks and roof tiles) and advanced ceramics. However, CERAMs major strength in aiding and facilitating innovation amongst members of the industry, is its ability to
26、facilitate funding and management of collaborative research, development and technology transfer projects. There is, however, evidence of attempts to improve this business awareness in the industry. The development of various industrial think-tanks and strategic direction groups, for example, the Ma
27、nufacturing Improvement Club , and the introduction of research projects, akin to this, have highlighted a certain willingness to further cognise innovation processes. In some organisations, more accepting and inquisitive business attitudes are also displayed by being enthusiastic about exploring ot
28、her industries in grossly different sectors in order to apply manufacturing process technology, productive technologies and business perspectives. A recent, although slight, trend of employing managers and executives from other, more technologically advanced, industries underlines this.There is, how
29、ever, evidence of attempts to improve this business awareness in the industry. The development of various industrial think-tanks and strategic direction groups, for example, the Manufacturing Improvement Club , and the introduction of research projects, akin to this, have highlighted a certain willi
30、ngness to further cognise innovation processes. In some organisations, more accepting and inquisitive business attitudes are also displayed by being enthusiastic about exploring other industries in grossly different sectors in order to apply manufacturing process technology, productive technologies
31、and business perspectives. A recent, although slight, trend of employing managers and executives from other, more technologically advanced, industries underlines this.4. Organisation and management of innovationAs past literature illustrates, the organisation and management of innovation is key to o
32、verall business success, especially since it is something that can be controlled. This is no different in the ceramics industry, where effective organisation, planning, scheduling and implementation of innovation is of great importance. One interview respondent commented that the process had to be t
33、reated as if it were a business in its own right: You cant handle it from the inception point in anything other than with business objectives at the end.Much of this project planning and consequent management is, however, very dependent on the source of funding for innovation. As emphasised above, m
34、any ceramics companies do not have the resources to innovate beyond incremental improvements and amendments, in the form of product range additions, etc. Therefore, they seek external funding and project management support. Such sources include government, Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and
35、European Commission funding. However, when such funding is secured, there are often concrete targets set and deliverables required by the funding source. This is because, today, much Government and European funding for commercial research and technology transfer requires comprehensive justification.
36、 Consequently, much of the planning and management procedures for externally funded projects are determined as a result of contractual agreements between the funding body and the innovating organisation. An example of this, in the Ceramics industry, is Airless Drying.Another significant organisation
37、 and management related influence on innovation in the ceramicsindustry is that of personalities; individuals and groups that facilitate and stimulate the process of innovation. Often referred to in the literature as project champions or (technical) gatekeepers, there is much emphasis on the need fo
38、r such individuals in the ceramics industry. The term personalities is used purposefully, since observation and interviews have highlighted that this is often what is needed in order to drive innovation forward. Interviews also emphasised some of the traits such as thorough flexibility and experienc
39、e of the industry a personality should have.An often cited example of a project champion in the ceramics industry is that of Pilkington. Particulate material folklore has it that Pilkington wanted to produce flat screen glass, yet was unsure how to do it. One day, one of the members of the Pilkingto
40、n family was washing up and noticed how the grease and washing fluid floated on the surface of the water. In a Eureka moment he posed the question to his organisation if it was possible to float glass in a similar fashion to produce an even layer. The result was a process for floating glass on liqui
41、d tin and drawing it through. Be it fact or fiction, this highlights the role of both the project champion and the technical gatekeeper.5. Other influences on innovationThe time that an innovation effort can take from the point of inception, through realisation and exploitation and to gaining a mean
42、ingful payback is something that is not often considered in the literature. In the ceramicsindustry, the timescale of innovation is of great importance. The research identified two timescales which affected innovation: Inception to realisation Depending on the nature of the innovation this can take
43、up to a decade. Airless Drying took about seven years from first entering the ceramics industry as a potential solution to high energy and time demands in the drying of ceramic-ware. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell research has been ongoing for approaching a decade. Although, many would say that this is a per
44、ennial problem for the UK manufacturers, and not specific to the ceramics industry, this does represent an elongated timescale.Realisation to payback Once an innovation has been realised, it has to be either sold or installed before it can be judged as a success or failure and before any payback can
45、 be achieved from its use.These timescales highlight how organisations are no longer investing today to reap for tomorrow, but to possibly reap in anything up to 15 years.Funding considerations are also key to innovation success in the industry. Interviews highlighted five forms of funding, based on
46、 sources both internal and external to the organisation: Internal source: (1) in-house funding; (2) building research facility;External sources: (3) private projects with other organisations; (4) collaborative projects with RTO and member companies and (5) with end-users.However, as referred to, the
47、 ceramics industry is proliferated by companies that do not have the financial resources to fund internally. Therefore, external funding is often sought. Sources of external funding include both the UK government (for example, DTI, Energy Technology Support Unit) and European Commission (for example
48、, Joule, Themie). Funding of this nature is usually available for both the basic and more applied research efforts. An example is ETSU, who manage the Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme on behalf of the Government. They offer funding to organisations in a range of industries, for projects tha
49、t seek, as their aim, to stimulate a reduction in the UK energy consumption. They offer funds for both basic research and more applied and commercially orientated projects.6. Summary and conclusionsThe ceramics industry illustration reiterates many previously identified antecedents to technological innovation and also brings to the fore other influences not previously emphasised. The role of the RTO in the industry is vital to maintain and fu
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